Page 18 - eBook_Proceedings of the International Conference on Digital Manufacturing V1

Proceedings of the International Conference on Digital Manufacturing –
Volume 1

long-term degradation profiles and dynamic physiological
conditions to further optimise scaffold performance for bone
tissue engineering applications.

Keywords: 3D Printing, Polylactic Acid (PLA), Bone Scaffold,
Biodegradation, Scaffold Geometry.

INTRODUCTION

Bone tissue engineering requires scaffolds that provide temporary
mechanical support while facilitating new bone growth. To meet
these demands, biodegradable materials capable of maintaining
structural integrity during early healing and subsequently
resorbing without adverse effects are critical (Tajvar, Hadjizadeh
& Samandari, 2023). In recent years, three-dimensional (3D)
printing has emerged as a promising technique for fabricating
customised bone scaffolds, enabling precise control over scaffold
geometry, porosity and material distribution (Mirkhalaf, Men,
Wang, No & Zreiqat, 2023).

Polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the most widely used
bioresorbable polymers in tissue engineering applications, owing
to its biocompatibility, favourable mechanical properties and
hydrolytic degradability. Typically, PLA exhibits a degradation
timeline ranging from ten (10) months to two (2) years, making it
suitable for low- to medium-load-bearing bone applications, such
as maxillofacial bone reconstruction, cranial defect repair, and
trabecular bone tissue replacement (Shekhar & Mondal, 2024;
Khouri et al., 2024). However, its relatively slow degradation and
the accumulation of acidic byproducts may influence local tissue
responses, highlighting the need for careful design and evaluation
(Zhang et al., 2025).

Recent studies have increasingly demonstrated that scaffold
geometry plays a critical role in the degradation behaviour of
PLA-based structures. Microstructured electrospun scaffolds,
featuring honeycomb patterns, have shown enhanced degradation
profiles and improved cellular responses compared to standard

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